Anadenanthera peregrina - Revision history

Held In Amber at 03:00, 23 May 2022

2022-05-23T03:00:32Z

Held In Amber at 02:31, 23 May 2022

2022-05-23T02:31:11Z

Tattvamasi: /* Sources */

2014-08-16T17:02:59Z

‎Sources

Tattvamasi: /* Phytochemicals with an emphasis on psychoactive compounds */

2014-08-16T17:02:22Z

‎Phytochemicals with an emphasis on psychoactive compounds

TheTraveler at 14:27, 4 November 2011

2011-11-04T14:27:51Z

Amor fati: botanical transclusion

2009-12-16T00:40:27Z

botanical transclusion

TheTraveler at 20:13, 16 June 2009

2009-06-16T20:13:01Z

TheTraveler at 20:08, 16 June 2009

2009-06-16T20:08:46Z

TheTraveler at 22:26, 15 February 2009

2009-02-15T22:26:18Z

TheTraveler: Added Category

2009-02-10T20:10:23Z

Added Category

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 <onlyinclude>
-{{botanics_info|image:anadenanthera_peregrina_flowers.jpg|Anadenanthera peregrina|'''Tryptamines known to be present in ''A. peregrina'' '''<ref>Southon et al. 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae. CRC Press. p. 71.</ref> Bufotenine (seeds)Bufotenine N-oxide (seeds)N,N-Dimethyltryptamine N-oxide (seeds)N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (bark)(pods)(seeds)5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine (bark)O-Methylbufotenine (bark) (seeds)N-Methyltryptamine (bark)}}
+{{botanics_info|image:anadenanthera_peregrina_flowers.jpg|Anadenanthera peregrina|'''Tryptamines known to be present in ''A. peregrina'' '''<ref name="Southon">Southon et al. 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae. CRC Press. p. 71.</ref> Bufotenine (seeds)Bufotenine N-oxide (seeds)N,N-Dimethyltryptamine N-oxide (seeds)N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (bark)(pods)(seeds)5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine (bark)O-Methylbufotenine (bark) (seeds)N-Methyltryptamine (bark)}}
 </onlyinclude>
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 ==Introduction==
-Utilized by indigenous peoples as a medicine and hallucinogen for thousands of years, ''Anadenanthera peregrina'' was first described as a species in 1737 in the ''Hortus Cliffortianus'' from a specimen in Holland (Torres and Repke 2006), though the use of the hallucinogenic snuff (usually called ''yopo'' or ''cohoba'') produced from the seeds and other parts of this species were documented by Spanish explorers as early as 1496 (Schultes and Reis 1995)  Linnaeus included the species in his ''Species Plantarum'' under the name ''Mimosa peregrina'' (1753; Safford 1916). The botanical identity of yopo was not known to the West until June 1854, when the ingredients and preparation of yopo were observed by British botanist Richard Spruce (Spruce 1864) (Davis 1996).  Spruce later published ''Notes of a Botanist'', a record of his explorations throughout South America, in which he includes descriptions of the plants and processes utilized by the indigenous peoples to produce hallucinogenic snuffs from ''A. peregrina'' and other plants (Spruce, 1864).
+Utilized by indigenous peoples as a medicine and hallucinogen for thousands of years, ''Anadenanthera peregrina'' was first described as a species in 1737 in the ''Hortus Cliffortianus'' from a specimen in Holland,<ref name="Torres">Torres and Repke. 2006. Anadenanthera. Haworth Press.</ref> though the use of the hallucinogenic snuff (usually called ''yopo'' or ''cohoba'') produced from the seeds and other parts of this species were documented by Spanish explorers as early as 1496.<ref name="Schultes">Schultes, Richard, Siri Von Reis. 1995. Ethnobotany: Evolution of a Discipline.  Timber Press.</ref>  Linnaeus included the species in his ''Species Plantarum'' under the name ''Mimosa peregrina''.<ref name="Safford">Safford, W.E. 1916. Identity of cohoba, the narcotic snuff of ancient Haiti. J
 ==Description==
 This species is one of only two generally recognized members of the genus ''Anadenanthera'', with former divisions primarily concerning four subspecies or ecotypes.  After placement in several different genera, most taxonomists accept the rigorous work of Sirri von Reis Altschul, who in 1964 revised the taxonomy of the genus to include only two members, ''A. colubrina'' and ''A. peregrina''.  Of the latter (and the focus of this paper), two variants are recognized: ''A. peregrina'' var. falcata, and ''A. peregrina'' var. peregrina.  For the purposes of this paper, Altschul’s description is provided:
-''Anadenanthera peregrina'' (L.) Speg. (Altschul 1964)
+''Anadenanthera peregrina'' (L.) Speg.<ref name="Altschul">Altschul, S. von Reis. 1964. A taxonomic study of the genus Anadenanthera. Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University 193: 1-65.</ref>
 <blockquote>Shrub to tall tree, 3-27 m high. Trunk 20-40 cm in diameter at breast height, usually leaning, twisted, sometimes divided at the base into several shafts; more frequently the contorted, irregular branches spread out above the middle of a solitary trunk into an umbrella-like crown.  Bark gray to nearly black with many small lenticels; unarmed or lower trunk producing conical thorns of wedge-shaped projections, sometimes intensely so when young, becoming tubercular-verrucose, corky, rugose and, in drier climates, very thick.  Young twigs and foliage puberulent, occasionally glaucescent; mature foliage glabrous or nearly so.  Leaves, including petioles, 12-30 cm long, the main rachis more or less channeled ventrally.  Petioles somewhat darkened at their bases, 5-15 mm above which bears a flattish, oval or oblong gland .5-5 mm long; 1-4 similar, smaller glands borne one between or just below each of the ultimate pinna pairs.  Pinna pairs 10-30 or more, each pinna 2-5 cm long, opposite or subopposite leaflets usually imbricate 25-80 pairs, 2-8 mm long, .5-1.5 mm wide, linear, oblong or lanceolate, straight to falcate, at the base oblique or truncate, at the apex acute to acuminate to apiculate; excentric mid-vein; membranous to coriaceous and nitid, sometimes differing in color and texture dorsiventrally.  Heads 10-18 mm in diameter, including stamens, greenish white to creamy yellow, in fascicles of 1-5, puberulous to glabrous in the bud; the heads axillary to the leaves and subterminal, rarely becoming arranged in racemous patterns in the branch apices. Peduncles 1.75-4 cm long, puberulous, filiform or thicker, each bearing about three-quarters of the way up the axis a puberulous bi-dentate, campanulate involucre which becomes detached and slides down to encircle loosely the base of the peduncle.  Calyx .5-2.6 mm long.  Corolla 2-3.5 mm long stamens 5-8 mm long; anthers eglandular in the bud.  Legume 5-35 cm long (including the stripe but not the peduncle), 1-3 cm wide, straight to falcate, oblongish to elongated, regularly to irregularly, vaguely or not at all contracted around the seeds, more or less flattened with margins slightly thickened; at the base attenuate to obtuse, at the apex mucronate to acuminate to cuspidate or, if the tip has broken off, rounded; surface scurfy to verrucose, and dull; dark brown with rufous scales in dried specimens.  Seeds 8-16, very thin, flat, orbicular to suborbicular, dark chestnut brown to black, shiny, 10-20 mm in diameter.</blockquote>
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 Like many members of Fabaceae, ''A. peregrina'' develops root nodules which allow the plant to develop symbiotic relationships with host-specific soil bacteria, thus creating a bioavailable nitrogen source in nutrient-poor soils allowing the plant sufficient nitrogen to synthesize amino acids.  This ensured supply of nitrogen may contribute to the ability to synthesize various tryptamines, as many members of the subfamily Mimosoideae do.
-''A. peregrina'' also demonstrates unique reproductive characteristics that are likely an adaptation to its environment.  Its breeding system has been demonstrated to be preferably xenogamic, a strategy shared by many plants which ensures genetic diversity thus greater survivability.  However when forced to produce fruit via autogamy, ''A. peregrina'' gradually increases its own genetic self-compatibility, a strategy which favors the progeny presence in a fragmented forest environment (Costa et al. 2003).
+''A. peregrina'' also demonstrates unique reproductive characteristics that are likely an adaptation to its environment.  Its breeding system has been demonstrated to be preferably xenogamic, a strategy shared by many plants which ensures genetic diversity thus greater survivability.  However when forced to produce fruit via autogamy, ''A. peregrina'' gradually increases its own genetic self-compatibility, a strategy which favors the progeny presence in a fragmented forest environment.<ref name="Costa">Costa et al. April 2003. Reproductive system of Anadenanthera peregrina and Vochysia haenkiana in a fragment of “Cerrado forest” from Chapada dos Guimaraes – MT, Brazil. Ciencia Rural vol. 33 no. 2.  Santa Maria.</ref>
 ==Habitat and range==
 [[Image:Anadenanthera-peregrina-range-map.png‎|thumb|right|300px|Range of ''A. peregrina'']]
-''A. peregrina'' is endemic to the tropical savannahs and semi-deciduous forests of South America and some Caribbean islands (Southon et al. 1994). In the Cerrado Biome of South America, it is one of the more common species of trees found in low altitude tropical seasonal forests, occurring in greater than 50% of surveyed locations in Brazil’s Sao Paulo state, and in more than 70% of surveyed locations among the seasonally dry tropical forests of the central-west region of the Biome (Pennington et al. 2006).  Because of the nitrogen-fixing rhizobia found in the nodules of its roots, ''A. peregrina'' is able to thrive in the often nutrient-deficient soils of the ''cerrado'' (Reatto et al. 1998)
+''A. peregrina'' is endemic to the tropical savannahs and semi-deciduous forests of South America and some Caribbean islands.<ref name="Southon" /> In the Cerrado Biome of South America, it is one of the more common species of trees found in low altitude tropical seasonal forests, occurring in greater than 50% of surveyed locations in Brazil’s Sao Paulo state, and in more than 70% of surveyed locations among the seasonally dry tropical forests of the central-west region of the Biome.<ref name="Pennington">Pennington et al. 2006. Neotropical Savannas and Seasonally Dry Forests: Plant Diversity, Biogeography, and Conservation. CRC Press. pp. 50, 61, 70, 190.</ref> Because of the nitrogen-fixing rhizobia found in the nodules of its roots, ''A. peregrina'' is able to thrive in the often nutrient-deficient soils of the ''cerrado''.<ref name="Reatto">Reatto et al. 1998. Solos do bioma Cerrado.  In Cerrado: ambiente e flora (S.M. Sano and S. P. Almeida, eds.). Embrapa-CPAC, Planaltina, p. 4786.</ref>
 ==Phytochemicals with an emphasis on psychoactive compounds==
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 ==Sources==
 Fraser, Lauchlan H.  Paul A. Keddy. 2005. The World’s Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation.  Cambridge University Press. p. 228.
 Fellows & Bell 1971; Schultes et al. 1977b; Torres & Repke 1996
 <references />
 [[Category:Botanicals]]

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 Torres and Repke. 2006. Anadenanthera. Haworth Press.
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 [[Category:Botanicals]]

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	Southon et al. 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae. CRC Press. p. 71.		Southon et al. 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae. CRC Press. p. 71.
		+
		+	Fellows & Bell 1971; Schultes et al. 1977b; Torres & Repke 1996

	Spruce, Robert. 1908. Notes of a Botanist. pp. 427-432.		Spruce, Robert. 1908. Notes of a Botanist. pp. 427-432.

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 *''O''-Methylbufotenine (bark) (seeds)
 *''N''-Methyltryptamine (bark)
 '''Flavonoids known to be present in ''A. peregrina'''''
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 *Orientin (leaves)
 *Vitexin (leaves)
 ==Human use==

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		+	{{botanics_info\|image:anadenanthera_peregrina_flowers.jpg\|Anadenanthera peregrina\|'''Tryptamines known to be present in ''A. peregrina'' '''<ref>Southon et al. 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae. CRC Press. p. 71.</ref> Bufotenine (seeds)Bufotenine N-oxide (seeds)N,N-Dimethyltryptamine N-oxide (seeds)N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (bark)(pods)(seeds)5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine (bark)O-Methylbufotenine (bark) (seeds)N-Methyltryptamine (bark)}}
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	[[Image:Anadenanthera_peregrina_flowers.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|''Anadenanthera peregrina'']]		[[Image:Anadenanthera_peregrina_flowers.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|''Anadenanthera peregrina'']]

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−	~~[imageright\|''Anadenanthera peregrina''\|Plant Images/anadenanthera peregrina full.jpg/Plant Images/anadenanthera peregrina full.jpg]~~
	Endemic to the tropical savannahs and semi-deciduous forests of South America and some Caribbean islands, ''' ''Anadenanthera peregrina'' ''' (common names include '' '''yopo''', '''cohoba''', '''mopo''', '''nopo''', '''parica''' '') has been utilized as a botanical medicine and entheogen by peoples living within its range for thousands of years. It is known primarily for the various psychoactive phytochemicals present throughout the plant, most notably for its many biologically active tryptamines. ''A. peregrina'' also benefits the quality of the soil where it grows by increasing levels of soil nitrogen through the nitrogen-fixing rhizobia contained in its root nodules. Belonging to the third largest family of flowering plants, Fabaceae (formally Leguminosae) this leguminous tree is one of only two known members of the genus ''Anadenanthera''.		Endemic to the tropical savannahs and semi-deciduous forests of South America and some Caribbean islands, ''' ''Anadenanthera peregrina'' ''' (common names include '' '''yopo''', '''cohoba''', '''mopo''', '''nopo''', '''parica''' '') has been utilized as a botanical medicine and entheogen by peoples living within its range for thousands of years. It is known primarily for the various psychoactive phytochemicals present throughout the plant, most notably for its many biologically active tryptamines. ''A. peregrina'' also benefits the quality of the soil where it grows by increasing levels of soil nitrogen through the nitrogen-fixing rhizobia contained in its root nodules. Belonging to the third largest family of flowering plants, Fabaceae (formally Leguminosae) this leguminous tree is one of only two known members of the genus ''Anadenanthera''.

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